This exemplifies the point that specific transporters and channels must exist within the muscle membranes for taurine’s import and export. For instance, glycolytic muscle fibers have been found to harbor ~ 1–3 μmol/g of taurine, while oxidative muscle contains ~ 15–20 μmol/g. High concentrations of taurine are found in different muscle types. Taurine concentrations are regulated by the kidney via urine excretion urine excretion of taurine can range from 65 to 250 mg daily. Plasma taurine has been shown to return to baseline concentrations 6–8 h after ingestion. Interestingly, taurine’s bioavailability is improved on an empty stomach. Nevertheless, the vast majority of taurine absorption occurs in the gastrointestinal tract within 1–2.5 h following ingestion. Some taurine is converted to isethionate by bacterial or tissue enzymes which are then converted to CO 2, water, ammonia, or urea. In humans, one-fourth of bile acids are conjugated with taurine before absorption. Pharmacokinetics and distribution of Taurine An in-depth explanation of the pharmacokinetics, distribution, and impacts of taurine on metabolism (fat metabolism in particular), and how taurine may impact metabolic stress (inflammation, oxidation, and calcium handling) will be provided first. For the purpose of this review, we have split the dosages into low (0.5–2 g), moderate (3–5 g), and high (> 5 g). The purpose of this review is to investigate the literature to date surrounding the effectiveness of taurine supplementation on exercise outcomes: aerobic adaptations and performance, anaerobic (strength and power) performance, muscle soreness, and recovery. However, taurine doses have ranged from 500 mg/d to 10 g/d in published human trials. Following this absorption phase, taurine levels return to baseline within 6.5 h (hrs). Importantly, several factors such as taurine ingestion timing, delivery format, and exercise protocol contribute to taurine’s impact on performance. Notably, plasma concentrations of taurine increase ~ 10 min after ingestion and generally peak (0.03 to 0.06 mmoL) ~ 1 h following ingestion. Taurine supplementation often occurs through oral ingestion of capsules or taurine-rich beverages. Accordingly, taurine has been used as a potential ergogenic aid to improve athletic performance. Taurine plays a beneficial role in diverse metabolic and physiological processes, such as glucose and lipid regulation, energy metabolism, anti-inflammatory modulation, and antioxidant actions. Rich sources of dietary taurine come from the consumption of animal proteins. Taurine is especially abundant in skeletal muscle. Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid that can be derived from cysteine metabolism and accounts for 50–60% of the free amino acid pool. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made.
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